Pada tahun 1992, sehubungan dengan
“sustainable development” pemerintah-pemerintah dunia menyepakati
dokumen “Agenda 21” berupa pedoman tindakan-tindakan yang perlu
diambil menuju Pembangunan Berkelanjutan. Berikut, disajikan potongan
dari ikhtisar dokumen besar itu, yaitu Bab 7, mengenai Pengembangan
Pemukiman Penduduk, Tata-Kota dan Manajemen Kota, Kegiatan Konstruksi
serta Penanganan Bencana.
Promoting Sustainable
Human Settlement Development
Introduction
7.1. In industrialized countries, the
consumption patterns of cities are severely stressing the global
ecosystem, while settlements in the developing world need more raw
material, energy, and economic development simply to overcome basic
economic and social problems. Human settlement conditions in many
parts of the world, particularly the developing countries, are
deteriorating mainly as a result of the low levels of investment in
the sector attributable to the overall resource constraints in these
countries. In the low-income countries for which recent data are
available, an average of only 5.6 per cent of central government
expenditure went to housing, amenities, social security and welfare.
1/ Expenditure by international support and finance organizations is
equally low. For example, only 1 per cent of the United Nations
system's total grant-financed expenditures in 1988 went to human
settlements, 2/ while in 1991, loans from the World Bank and the
International Development Association (IDA) for urban development and
water supply and sewerage amounted to 5.5 and 5.4 per cent,
respectively, of their total lending. 3/
7.2. On the other hand, available
information indicates that technical cooperation activities in the
human settlement sector generate considerable public and private
sector investment. For example, every dollar of UNDP technical
cooperation expenditure on human settlements in 1988 generated a
follow-up investment of $122, the highest of all UNDP sectors of
assistance.4/
7.3. This is the foundation of the
"enabling approach" advocated for the human settlement
sector. External assistance will help to generate the internal
resources needed to improve the living and working environments of
all people by the year 2000 and beyond, including the growing number
of unemployed - the no-income group. At the same time the
environmental implications of urban development should be recognized
and addressed in an integrated fashion by all countries, with high
priority being given to the needs of the urban and rural poor, the
unemployed and the growing number of people without any source of
income.
Human settlement objective
7.4. The overall human settlement
objective is to improve the social, economic and environmental
quality of human settlements and the living and working environments
of all people, in particular the urban and rural poor. Such
improvement should be based on technical cooperation activities,
partnerships among the public, private and community sectors and
participation in the decision-making process by community groups and
special interest groups such as women, indigenous people, the elderly
and the disabled. These approaches should form the core principles of
national settlement strategies. In developing these strategies,
countries will need to set priorities among the eight programme areas
in this chapter in accordance with their national plans and
objectives, taking fully into account their social and cultural
capabilities. Furthermore, countries should make appropriate
provision to monitor the impact of their strategies on marginalized
and disenfranchised groups, with particular reference to the needs of
women.
7.5. The programme areas included in
this chapter are:
(a) Providing adequate shelter for
all;
(b) Improving human settlement
management;
(c) Promoting sustainable land-use
planning and management;
(d) Promoting the integrated
provision of environmental infrastructure: water, sanitation,
drainage and solid-waste management;
(e) Promoting sustainable energy
and transport systems in human settlements;
(f) Promoting human settlement
planning and management in disaster-prone areas;
(g) Promoting sustainable
construction industry activities;
(h) Promoting human resource
development and capacity-building for human settlement development.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Providing adequate shelter for
all
Basis for action
7.6. Access to safe and healthy shelter
is essential to a person's physical, psychological, social and
economic well-being and should be a fundamental part of national and
international action. The right to adequate housing as a basic human
right is enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and
the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
Despite this, it is estimated that at the present time, at least 1
billion people do not have access to safe and healthy shelter and
that if appropriate action is not taken, this number will increase
dramatically by the end of the century and beyond.
7.7. A major global programme to
address this problem is the Global Strategy for Shelter to the Year
2000, adopted by the General Assembly in December 1988 (resolution
43/181, annex). Despite its widespread endorsement, the Strategy
needs a much greater level of political and financial support to
enable it to reach its goal of facilitating adequate shelter for all
by the end of the century and beyond.
Objective
7.8. The objective is to achieve
adequate shelter for rapidly growing populations and for the
currently deprived urban and rural poor through an enabling approach
to shelter development and improvement that is environmentally sound.
Activities
7.9. The following activities should be
undertaken:
(a) As a first step towards the
goal of providing adequate shelter for all, all countries should take
immediate measures to provide shelter to their homeless poor, while
the international community and financial institutions should
undertake actions to support the efforts of the developing countries
to provide shelter to the poor;
(b) All countries should adopt
and/or strengthen national shelter strategies, with targets based, as
appropriate, on the principles and recommendations contained in the
Global Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000. People should be
protected by law against unfair eviction from their homes or land;
(c) All countries should, as
appropriate, support the shelter efforts of the urban and rural poor,
the unemployed and the no-income group by adopting and/or adapting
existing codes and regulations, to facilitate their access to land,
finance and low-cost building materials and by actively promoting the
regularization and upgrading of informal settlements and urban slums
as an expedient measure and pragmatic solution to the urban shelter
deficit;
(d) All countries should, as
appropriate, facilitate access of urban and rural poor to shelter by
adopting and utilizing housing and finance schemes and new innovative
mechanisms adapted to their circumstances;
(e) All countries should support
and develop environmentally compatible shelter strategies at
national, state/provincial and municipal levels through partnerships
among the private, public and community sectors and with the support
of community-based organizations;
(f) All countries, especially
developing ones, should, as appropriate, formulate and implement
programmes to reduce the impact of the phenomenon of rural to urban
drift by improving rural living conditions;
(g) All countries, where
appropriate, should develop and implement resettlement programmes
that address the specific problems of displaced populations in their
respective countries;
(h) All countries should, as
appropriate, document and monitor the implementation of their
national shelter strategies by using, inter alia, the monitoring
guidelines adopted by the Commission on Human Settlements and the
shelter performance indicators being produced jointly by the United
Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) and the World Bank;
(i) Bilateral and multilateral
cooperation should be strengthened in order to support the
implementation of the national shelter strategies of developing
countries;
(j) Global progress reports
covering national action and the support activities of international
organizations and bilateral donors should be produced and
disseminated on a biennial basis, as requested in the Global Strategy
for Shelter to the Year 2000.
Means of implementation
A) Financing and cost evaluation
7.10. The Conference secretariat has
estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing
the activities of this programme to be about $75 billion, including
about $10 billion from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
B) Scientific and technological
means
7.11. The requirements under this
heading are addressed in each of the other programme areas included
in the present chapter.
C) Human resource development and
capacity-building
7.12. Developed countries and funding
agencies should provide specific assistance to developing countries
in adopting an enabling approach to the provision of shelter for all,
including the no-income group, and covering research institutions and
training activities for government officials, professionals,
communities and non-governmental organizations and by strengthening
local capacity for the development of appropriate technologies.
B. Improving human settlement
management
Basis for action
7.13. By the turn of the century, the
majority of the world's population will be living in cities. While
urban settlements, particularly in developing countries, are showing
many of the symptoms of the global environment and development
crisis, they nevertheless generate 60 per cent of gross national
product and, if properly managed, can develop the capacity to sustain
their productivity, improve the living conditions of their residents
and manage natural resources in a sustainable way.
7.14. Some metropolitan areas extend
over the boundaries of several political and/or administrative
entities (counties and municipalities) even though they conform to a
continuous urban system. In many cases this political heterogeneity
hinders the implementation of comprehensive environmental management
programmes.
Objective
7.15. The objective is to ensure
sustainable management of all urban settlements, particularly in
developing countries, in order to enhance their ability to improve
the living conditions of residents, especially the marginalized and
disenfranchised, thereby contributing to the achievement of national
economic development goals.
Activities
A) Improving urban management
7.16. One existing framework for
strengthening management is in the United Nations Development
Programme/World Bank/United Nations Centre for Human Settlements
(Habitat) Urban Management Programme (UMP), a concerted global effort
to assist developing countries in addressing urban management issues.
Its coverage should be extended to all interested countries during
the period 1993-2000. All countries should, as appropriate and in
accordance with national plans, objectives and priorities and with
the assistance of non-governmental organizations and representatives
of local authorities, undertake the following activities at the
national, state/provincial and local levels, with the assistance of
relevant programmes and support agencies:
(a) Adopting and applying urban
management guidelines in the areas of land management, urban
environmental management, infrastructure management and municipal
finance and administration;
(b) Accelerating efforts to reduce
urban poverty through a number of actions, including:
Generating employment for the
urban poor, particularly women, through the provision, improvement
and maintenance of urban infrastructure and services and the support
of economic activities in the informal sector, such as repairs,
recycling, services and small commerce;
Providing specific assistance
to the poorest of the urban poor through, inter alia, the creation of
social infrastructure in order to reduce hunger and homelessness, and
the provision of adequate community services;
Encouraging the establishment
of indigenous community-based organizations, private voluntary
organizations and other forms of non-governmental entities that can
contribute to the efforts to reduce poverty and improve the quality
of life for low-income families;
(c) Adopting innovative city
planning strategies to address environmental and social issues by:
Reducing subsidies on, and
recovering the full costs of, environmental and other services of
high standard (e.g. water supply, sanitation, waste collection,
roads, telecommunications) provided to higher income neighbourhoods;
Improving the level of
infrastructure and service provision in poorer urban areas;
(d) Developing local strategies for
improving the quality of life and the environment, integrating
decisions on land use and land management, investing in the public
and private sectors and mobilizing human and material resources,
thereby promoting employment generation that is environmentally sound
and protective of human health.
(B) Strengthening urban data systems
7.17. During the period 1993-2000 all
countries should undertake, with the active participation of the
business sector as appropriate, pilot projects in selected cities for
the collection, analysis and subsequent dissemination of urban data,
including environmental impact analysis, at the local,
state/provincial, national and international levels and the
establishment of city data management capabilities. 5/ United Nations
organizations, such as Habitat, UNEP and UNDP, could provide
technical advice and model data management systems.
C) Encouraging intermediate city
development
7.18. In order to relieve pressure on
large urban agglomerations of developing countries, policies and
strategies should be implemented towards the development of
intermediate cities that create employment opportunities for
unemployed labour in the rural areas and support rural-based economic
activities, although sound urban management is essential to ensure
that urban sprawl does not expand resource degradation over an ever
wider land area and increase pressures to convert open space and
agricultural/buffer lands for development.
7.19. Therefore all countries should,
as appropriate, conduct reviews of urbanization processes and
policies in order to assess the environmental impacts of growth and
apply urban planning and management approaches specifically suited to
the needs, resource capabilities and characteristics of their growing
intermediate-sized cities. As appropriate, they should also
concentrate on activities aimed at facilitating the transition from
rural to urban lifestyles and settlement patterns and at promoting
the development of small-scale economic activities, particularly the
production of food, to support local income generation and the
production of intermediate goods and services for rural hinterlands.
7.20. All cities, particularly those
characterized by severe sustainable development problems, should, in
accordance with national laws, rules and regulations, develop and
strengthen programmes aimed at addressing such problems and guiding
their development along a sustainable path. Some international
initiatives in support of such efforts, as in the Sustainable Cities
Programme of Habitat and the Healthy Cities Programme of WHO, should
be intensified. Additional initiatives involving the World Bank, the
regional development banks and bilateral agencies, as well as other
interested stakeholders, particularly international and national
representatives of local authorities, should be strengthened and
coordinated. Individual cities should, as appropriate:
(a) Institutionalize a
participatory approach to sustainable urban development, based on a
continuous dialogue between the actors involved in urban development
(the public sector, private sector and communities), especially women
and indigenous people;
(b) Improve the urban environment
by promoting social organization and environmental awareness through
the participation of local communities in the identification of
public services needs, the provision of urban infrastructure, the
enhancement of public amenities and the protection and/or
rehabilitation of older buildings, historic precincts and other
cultural artifacts. In addition, "green works" programmes
should be activated to create self-sustaining human development
activities and both formal and informal employment opportunities for
low-income urban residents;
(c) Strengthen the capacities of
their local governing bodies to deal more effectively with the broad
range of developmental and environmental challenges associated with
rapid and sound urban growth through comprehensive approaches to
planning that recognize the individual needs of cities and are based
on ecologically sound urban design practices;
(d) Participate in international
"sustainable city networks" to exchange experiences and
mobilize national and international technical and financial support;
(e) Promote the formulation of
environmentally sound and culturally sensitive tourism programmes as
a strategy for sustainable development of urban and rural settlements
and as a way of decentralizing urban development and reducing
discrepancies among regions;
(f) Establish mechanisms, with the
assistance of relevant international agencies, to mobilize resources
for local initiatives to improve environmental quality;
(g) Empower community groups,
non-governmental organizations and individuals to assume the
authority and responsibility for managing and enhancing their
immediate environment through participatory tools, techniques and
approaches embodied in the concept of environmental care.
7.21. Cities of all countries should
reinforce cooperation among themselves and cities of the developed
countries, under the aegis of non-governmental organizations active
in this field, such as the International Union of Local Authorities
(IULA), the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives
(ICLEI) and the World Federation of Twin Cities.
Means of implementation
A) Financing and cost evaluation
7.22. The Conference secretariat has
estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing
the activities of this programme to be about $100 billion, including
about $15 billion from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
B) Human resource development and
capacity-building
7.23. Developing countries should, with
appropriate international assistance, consider focusing on training
and developing a cadre of urban managers, technicians, administrators
and other relevant stakeholders who can successfully manage
environmentally sound urban development and growth and are equipped
with the skills necessary to analyse and adapt the innovative
experiences of other cities. For this purpose, the full range of
training methods - from formal education to the use of the mass media
- should be utilized, as well as the "learning by doing"
option.
7.24. Developing countries should also
encourage technological training and research through joint efforts
by donors, non-governmental organizations and private business in
such areas as the reduction of waste, water quality, saving of
energy, safe production of chemicals and less polluting
transportation.
7.25. Capacity-building activities
carried out by all countries, assisted as suggested above, should go
beyond the training of individuals and functional groups to include
institutional arrangements, administrative routines, inter-agency
linkages, information flows and consultative processes.
7.26. In addition, international
efforts, such as the Urban Management Programme, in cooperation with
multilateral and bilateral agencies, should continue to assist the
developing countries in their efforts to develop a participatory
structure by mobilizing the human resources of the private sector,
non-governmental organizations and the poor, particularly women and
the disadvantaged.
C. Promoting sustainable land-use
planning and management
Basis for action
7.27. Access to land resources is an
essential component of sustainable low-impact lifestyles. Land
resources are the basis for (human) living systems and provide soil,
energy, water and the opportunity for all human activity. In rapidly
growing urban areas, access to land is rendered increasingly
difficult by the conflicting demands of industry, housing, commerce,
agriculture, land tenure structures and the need for open spaces.
Furthermore, the rising costs of urban land prevent the poor from
gaining access to suitable land. In rural areas, unsustainable
practices, such as the exploitation of marginal lands and the
encroachment on forests and ecologically fragile areas by commercial
interests and landless rural populations, result in environmental
degradation, as well as in diminishing returns for impoverished rural
settlers.
Objective
7.28. The objective is to provide for
the land requirements of human settlement development through
environmentally sound physical planning and land use so as to ensure
access to land to all households and, where appropriate, the
encouragement of communally and collectively owned and managed land.
6/ Particular attention should be paid to the needs of women and
indigenous people for economic and cultural reasons.
Activities
7.29. All countries should consider, as
appropriate, undertaking a comprehensive national inventory of their
land resources in order to establish a land information system in
which land resources will be classified according to their most
appropriate uses and environmentally fragile or disaster-prone areas
will be identified for special protection measures.
7.30. Subsequently, all countries
should consider developing national land-resource management plans to
guide land-resource development and utilization and, to that end,
should:
(a) Establish, as appropriate,
national legislation to guide the implementation of public policies
for environmentally sound urban development, land utilization,
housing and for the improved management of urban expansion;
(b) Create, where appropriate,
efficient and accessible land markets that meet community development
needs by, inter alia, improving land registry systems and
streamlining procedures in land transactions;
(c) Develop fiscal incentives and
land-use control measures, including land-use planning solutions for
a more rational and environmentally sound use of limited land
resources;
(d) Encourage partnerships among
the public, private and community sectors in managing land resources
for human settlements development;
(e) Strengthen community-based
land-resource protection practices in existing urban and rural
settlements;
(f) Establish appropriate forms of
land tenure that provide security of tenure for all land-users,
especially indigenous people, women, local communities, the
low-income urban dwellers and the rural poor;
(g) Accelerate efforts to promote
access to land by the urban and rural poor, including credit schemes
for the purchase of land and for building/acquiring or improving safe
and healthy shelter and infrastructure services;
(h) Develop and support the
implementation of improved land-management practices that deal
comprehensively with potentially competing land requirements for
agriculture, industry, transport, urban development, green spaces,
preserves and other vital needs;
(i) Promote understanding among
policy makers of the adverse consequences of unplanned settlements in
environmentally vulnerable areas and of the appropriate national and
local land-use and settlements policies required for this purpose.
7.31. At the international level,
global coordination of land-resource management activities should be
strengthened by the various bilateral and multilateral agencies and
programmes, such as UNDP, FAO, the World Bank, the regional
development banks, other interested organizations and the UNDP/World
Bank/Habitat Urban Management Programme, and action should be taken
to promote the transfer of applicable experience on sustainable
land-management practices to and among developing countries.
Means of implementation
A) Financing and cost evaluation
7.32. The Conference secretariat has
estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing
the activities of this programme to be about $3 billion, including
about $300 million from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
B) Scientific and technological
means
7.33. All countries, particularly
developing countries, alone or in regional or subregional groupings,
should be given access to modern techniques of land-resource
management, such as geographical information systems, satellite
photography/imagery and other remote-sensing technologies.
C) Human resource development and
capacity-building
7.34. Environmentally focused training
activities in sustainable land-resources planning and management
should be undertaken in all countries, with developing countries
being given assistance through international support and funding
agencies in order to:
(a) Strengthen the capacity of
national, state/provincial and local educational research and
training institutions to provide formal training of land-management
technicians and professionals;
(b) Facilitate the organizational
review of government ministries and agencies responsible for land
questions, in order to devise more efficient mechanisms of
land-resource management, and carry out periodic in-service refresher
courses for the managers and staff of such ministries and agencies in
order to familiarize them with up-to-date land-resource-management
technologies;
(c) Where appropriate, provide such
agencies with modern equipment, such as computer hardware and
software and survey equipment;
(d) Strengthen existing programmes
and promote an international and interregional exchange of
information and experience in land management through the
establishment of professional associations in land-management
sciences and related activities, such as workshops and seminars.
D. Promoting the integrated
provision of environmental infrastructure: water, sanitation,
drainage and solid-waste management
Basis for action
7.35. The sustainability of urban
development is defined by many parameters relating to the
availability of water supplies, air quality and the provision of
environmental infrastructure for sanitation and waste management. As
a result of the density of users, urbanization, if properly managed,
offers unique opportunities for the supply of sustainable
environmental infrastructure through adequate pricing policies,
educational programmes and equitable access mechanisms that are
economically and environmentally sound. In most developing countries,
however, the inadequacy and lack of environmental infrastructure is
responsible for widespread ill-health and a large number of
preventable deaths each year. In those countries conditions are set
to worsen due to growing needs that exceed the capacity of
Governments to respond adequately.
7.36. An integrated approach to the
provision of environmentally sound infrastructure in human
settlements, in particular for the urban and rural poor, is an
investment in sustainable development that can improve the quality of
life, increase productivity, improve health and reduce the burden of
investments in curative medicine and poverty alleviation.
7.37. Most of the activities whose
management would be improved by an integrated approach, are covered
in Agenda 21 as follows: chapter 6 (Protecting and promoting human
health conditions), chapters 9 (Protecting the atmosphere), 18
(Protecting the quality and supply of freshwater resources) and 21
(Environmentally sound management of solid wastes and sewage-related
issues).
Objective
7.38. The objective is to ensure the
provision of adequate environmental infrastructure facilities in all
settlements by the year 2025. The achievement of this objective would
require that all developing countries incorporate in their national
strategies programmes to build the necessary technical, financial and
human resource capacity aimed at ensuring better integration of
infrastructure and environmental planning by the year 2000.
Activities
7.39. All countries should assess the
environmental suitability of infrastructure in human settlements,
develop national goals for sustainable management of waste, and
implement environmentally sound technology to ensure that the
environment, human health and quality of life are protected.
Settlement infrastructure and environmental programmes designed to
promote an integrated human settlements approach to the planning,
development, maintenance and management of environmental
infrastructure (water supply, sanitation, drainage, solid-waste
management) should be strengthened with the assistance of bilateral
and multilateral agencies. Coordination among these agencies and with
collaboration from international and national representatives of
local authorities, the private sector and community groups should
also be strengthened. The activities of all agencies engaged in
providing environmental infrastructure should, where possible,
reflect an ecosystem or metropolitan area approach to settlements and
should include monitoring, applied research, capacity-building,
transfer of appropriate technology and technical cooperation among
the range of programme activities.
7.40. Developing countries should be
assisted at the national and local levels in adopting an integrated
approach to the provision of water supply, energy, sanitation,
drainage and solid-waste management, and external funding agencies
should ensure that this approach is applied in particular to
environmental infrastructure improvement in informal settlements
based on regulations and standards that take into account the living
conditions and resources of the communities to be served.
7.41. All countries should, as
appropriate, adopt the following principles for the provision of
environmental infrastructure:
(a) Adopt policies that minimize if
not altogether avoid environmental damage, whenever possible;
(b) Ensure that relevant decisions
are preceded by environmental impact assessments and also take into
account the costs of any ecological consequences;
(c) Promote development in
accordance with indigenous practices and adopt technologies
appropriate to local conditions;
(d) Promote policies aimed at
recovering the actual cost of infrastructure services, while at the
same time recognizing the need to find suitable approaches (including
subsidies) to extend basic services to all households;
(e) Seek joint solutions to
environmental problems that affect several localities.
7.42. The dissemination of information
from existing programmes should be facilitated and encouraged among
interested countries and local institutions.
Means of implementation
A) Financing and cost evaluation
7.43. The Conference secretariat has
estimated most of the costs of implementing the activities of this
programme in other chapters. The secretariat estimates the average
total annual cost (1993-2000) of technical assistance from the
international community grant or concessional terms to be about $50
million. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only
and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide
upon for implementation.
B) Scientific and technological
means
7.44. Scientific and technological
means within the existing programmes should be coordinated wherever
possible and should:
(a) Accelerate research in the area
of integrated policies of environmental infrastructure programmes and
projects based on cost/benefit analysis and overall environmental
impact;
(b) Promote methods of assessing
"effective demand", utilizing environment and development
data as criteria for selecting technology.
C) Human resource development and
capacity-building
7.45. With the assistance and support
of funding agencies, all countries should, as appropriate, undertake
training and popular participation programmes aimed at:
(a) Raising awareness of the means,
approaches and benefits of the provision of environmental
infrastructure facilities, especially among indigenous people, women,
low-income groups and the poor;
(b) Developing a cadre of
professionals with adequate skills in integrated infrastructural
service planning and maintenance of resource-efficient,
environmentally sound and socially acceptable systems;
(c) Strengthening the institutional
capacity of local authorities and administrators in the integrated
provision of adequate infrastructure services in partnership with
local communities and the private sector;
(d) Adopting appropriate legal and
regulatory instruments, including cross-subsidy arrangements, to
extend the benefits of adequate and affordable environmental
infrastructure to unserved population groups, especially the poor.
E. Promoting sustainable energy and
transport systems in human settlements
Basis for action
7.46. Most of the commercial and
non-commercial energy produced today is used in and for human
settlements, and a substantial percentage of it is used by the
household sector. Developing countries are at present faced with the
need to increase their energy production to accelerate development
and raise the living standards of their populations, while at the
same time reducing energy production costs and energy-related
pollution. Increasing the efficiency of energy use to reduce its
polluting effects and to promote the use of renewable energies must
be a priority in any action taken to protect the urban environment.
7.47. Developed countries, as the
largest consumers of energy, are faced with the need for energy
planning and management, promoting renewable and alternate sources of
energy, and evaluating the life-cycle costs of current systems and
practices as a result of which many metropolitan areas are suffering
from pervasive air quality problems related to ozone, particulate
matters and carbon monoxide. The causes have much to do with
technological inadequacies and with an increasing fuel consumption
generated by inefficiencies, high demographic and industrial
concentrations and a rapid expansion in the number of motor vehicles.
7.48. Transport accounts for about 30
per cent of commercial energy consumption and for about 60 per cent
of total global consumption of liquid petroleum. In developing
countries, rapid motorization and insufficient investments in
urban-transport planning, traffic management and infrastructure, are
creating increasing problems in terms of accidents and injury,
health, noise, congestion and loss of productivity similar to those
occurring in many developed countries. All of these problems have a
severe impact on urban populations, particularly the low-income and
no-income groups.
Objectives
7.49. The objectives are to extend the
provision of more energy-efficient technology and
alternative/renewable energy for human settlements and to reduce
negative impacts of energy production and use on human health and on
the environment.
Activities
7.50. The principal activities relevant
to this programme area are included in chapter 9 (Protection of the
atmosphere), programme area B, subprogramme 1 (Energy development,
efficiency and consumption) and subprogramme 2 (Transportation).
7.51. A comprehensive approach to human
settlements development should include the promotion of sustainable
energy development in all countries, as follows:
(a) Developing countries, in
particular, should:
Formulate national action
programmes to promote and support reafforestation and national forest
regeneration with a view to achieving sustained provision of the
biomass energy needs of the low-income groups in urban areas and the
rural poor, in particular women and children;
Formulate national action
programmes to promote integrated development of energy-saving and
renewable energy technologies, particularly for the use of solar,
hydro, wind and biomass sources;
Promote wide dissemination and
commercialization of renewable energy technologies through suitable
measures, inter alia, fiscal and technology transfer mechanisms;
Carry out information and
training programmes directed at manufacturers and users in order to
promote energy-saving techniques and energy-efficient appliances;
(b) International organizations and
bilateral donors should:
Support developing countries in
implementing national energy programmes in order to achieve
widespread use of energy-saving and renewable energy technologies,
particularly the use of solar, wind, biomass and hydro sources;
Provide access to research and
development results to increase energy-use efficiency levels in human
settlements.
7.52. Promoting efficient and
environmentally sound urban transport systems in all countries should
be a comprehensive approach to urban-transport planning and
management. To this end, all countries should:
(a) Integrate land-use and
transportation planning to encourage development patterns that reduce
transport demand;
(b) Adopt urban-transport
programmes favouring high-occupancy public transport in countries, as
appropriate;
(c) Encourage non-motorized modes
of transport by providing safe cycleways and footways in urban and
suburban centres in countries, as appropriate;
(d) Devote particular attention to
effective traffic management, efficient operation of public transport
and maintenance of transport infrastructure;
(e) Promote the exchange of
information among countries and representatives of local and
metropolitan areas;
(f) Re-evaluate the present
consumption and production patterns in order to reduce the use of
energy and national resources.
Means of implementation
A) Financing and cost evaluation
7.53. The Conference secretariat has
estimated the costs of implementing the activities of this programme
in chapter 9 (Protection of the atmosphere).
B) Human resource development and
capacity-building
7.54. In order to enhance the skills of
energy service and transport professionals and institutions, all
countries should, as appropriate:
(a) Provide on-the-job and other
training of government officials, planners, traffic engineers and
managers involved in the energy-service and transport section;
(b) Raise public awareness of the
environmental impacts of transport and travel behaviour through mass
media campaigns and support for non-governmental and community
initiatives promoting the use of non-motorized transport, shared
driving and improved traffic safety measures;
(c) Strengthen regional, national,
state/provincial, and private sector institutions that provide
education and training on energy service and urban transport planning
and management.
F. Promoting human settlement
planning and management in disaster-prone areas
Basis for action
7.55. Natural disasters cause loss of
life, disruption of economic activities and urban productivity,
particularly for highly susceptible low-income groups, and
environmental damage, such as loss of fertile agricultural land and
contamination of water resources, and can lead to major resettlement
of populations. Over the past two decades, they are estimated to have
caused some 3 million deaths and affected 800 million people. Global
economic losses have been estimated by the Office of the United
Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator to be in the range of $30-50
billion per year.
7.56. The General Assembly, in
resolution 44/236, proclaimed the 1990s as the International Decade
for Natural Disaster Reduction. The goals of the Decade 7/ bear
relevance to the objectives of the present programme area.
7.57. In addition, there is an urgent
need to address the prevention and reduction of man-made disasters
and/or disasters caused by, inter alia, industries, unsafe nuclear
power generation and toxic wastes (see chapter 6 of Agenda 21).
Objective
7.58. The objective is to enable all
countries, in particular those that are disaster-prone, to mitigate
the negative impact of natural and man-made disasters on human
settlements, national economies and the environment.
Activities
7.59. Three distinct areas of activity
are foreseen under this programme area, namely, the development of a
"culture of safety", pre-disaster planning and
post-disaster reconstruction.
A) Developing a culture of safety
7.60. To promote a "culture of
safety" in all countries, especially those that are
disaster-prone, the following activities should be carried out:
(a) Completing national and local
studies on the nature and occurrence of natural disasters, their
impact on people and economic activities, the effects of inadequate
construction and land use in hazard-prone areas, and the social and
economic advantages of adequate pre-disaster planning;
(b) Implementing nationwide and
local awareness campaigns through all available media, translating
the above knowledge into information easily comprehensible to the
general public and to the populations directly exposed to hazards;
(c) Strengthening, and/or
developing global, regional, national and local early warning systems
to alert populations to impending disasters;
(d) Identifying industrially based
environmental disaster areas at the national and international levels
and implementing strategies aimed at the rehabilitation of these
areas through, inter alia:
Restructuring of the economic
activities and promoting new job opportunities in environmentally
sound sectors;
Promoting close collaboration
between governmental and local authorities, local communities and
non-governmental organizations and private business;
Developing and enforcing strict
environmental control standards.
B) Developing pre-disaster planning
7.61. Pre-disaster planning should form
an integral part of human settlement planning in all countries. The
following should be included:
(a) Undertaking complete
multi-hazard research into risk and vulnerability of human
settlements and settlement infrastructure, including water and
sewerage, communication and transportation networks, as one type of
risk reduction may increase vulnerability to another (e.g., an
earthquake-resistant house made of wood will be more vulnerable to
wind storms);
(b) Developing methodologies for
determining risk and vulnerability within specific human settlements
and incorporating risk and vulnerability reduction into the human
settlement planning and management process;
(c) Redirecting inappropriate new
development and human settlements to areas not prone to hazards;
(d) Preparing guidelines on
location, design and operation of potentially hazardous industries
and activities;
(e) Developing tools (legal,
economic etc.) to encourage disaster-sensitive development, including
means of ensuring that limitations on development options are not
punitive to owners, or incorporate alternative means of compensation;
(f) Further developing and
disseminating information on disaster-resistant building materials
and construction technologies for buildings and public works in
general;
(g) Developing training programmes
for contractors and builders on disaster-resistant construction
methods. Some programmes should be directed particularly to small
enterprises, which build the great majority of housing and other
small buildings in the developing countries, as well as to the rural
populations, which build their own houses;
(h) Developing training programmes
for emergency site managers, non-governmental organizations and
community groups which cover all aspects of disaster mitigation,
including urban search and rescue, emergency communications, early
warning techniques, and pre-disaster planning;
(i) Developing procedures and
practices to enable local communities to receive information about
hazardous installations or situations in these areas, and facilitate
their participation in early warning and disaster abatement and
response procedures and plans;
(j) Preparing action plans for the
reconstruction of settlements, especially the reconstruction of
community life-lines.
C) Initiating post-disaster
reconstruction and rehabilitation planning
7.62. The international community, as a
major partner in post-reconstruction and rehabilitation, should
ensure that the countries involved derive the greatest benefits from
the funds allocated by undertaking the following activities:
(a) Carrying out research on past
experiences on the social and economic aspects of post-disaster
reconstruction and adopting effective strategies and guidelines for
post-disaster reconstruction, with particular focus on
development-focused strategies in the allocation of scarce
reconstruction resources, and on the opportunities that post-disaster
reconstruction provides to introduce sustainable settlement patterns;
(b) Preparing and disseminating
international guidelines for adaptation to national and local needs;
(c) Supporting efforts of national
Governments to initiate contingency planning, with participation of
affected communities, for post-disaster reconstruction and
rehabilitation.
Means of implementation
A) Financing and cost evaluation
7.63. The Conference secretariat has
estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing
the activities of this programme to be about $50 million from the
international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including
any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
B) Scientific and technological
means
7.64. Scientists and engineers
specializing in this field in both developing and developed countries
should collaborate with urban and regional planners in order to
provide the basic knowledge and means to mitigate losses owing to
disasters as well as environmentally inappropriate development.
C) Human resource development and
capacity-building
7.65. Developing countries should
conduct training programmes on disaster-resistant construction
methods for contractors and builders, who build the majority of
housing in the developing countries. This should focus on the small
business enterprises, which build the majority of housing in the
developing countries.
7.66. Training programmes should be
extended to government officials and planners and community and
non-governmental organizations to cover all aspects of disaster
mitigation, such as early warning techniques, pre-disaster planning
and construction, post-disaster construction and rehabilitation.
G. Promoting sustainable
construction industry activities
Basis for action
7.67. The activities of the
construction sector are vital to the achievement of the national
socio-economic development goals of providing shelter, infrastructure
and employment. However, they can be a major source of environmental
damage through depletion of the natural resource base, degradation of
fragile eco-zones, chemical pollution and the use of building
materials harmful to human health.
Objectives
7.68. The objectives are, first, to
adopt policies and technologies and to exchange information on them
in order to enable the construction sector to meet human settlement
development goals, while avoiding harmful side-effects on human
health and on the biosphere, and, second, to enhance the
employment-generation capacity of the construction sector.
Governments should work in close collaboration with the private
sector in achieving these objectives.
Activities
7.69. All countries should, as
appropriate and in accordance with national plans, objectives and
priorities:
(a) Establish and strengthen
indigenous building materials industry, based, as much as possible,
on inputs of locally available natural resources;
(b) Formulate programmes to enhance
the utilization of local materials by the construction sector by
expanding technical support and incentive schemes for increasing the
capabilities and economic viability of small-scale and informal
operatives which make use of these materials and traditional
construction techniques;
(c) Adopt standards and other
regulatory measures which promote the increased use of
energy-efficient designs and technologies and sustainable utilization
of natural resources in an economically and environmentally
appropriate way;
(d) Formulate appropriate land-use
policies and introduce planning regulations specially aimed at the
protection of eco-sensitive zones against physical disruption by
construction and construction-related activities;
(e) Promote the use of
labour-intensive construction and maintenance technologies which
generate employment in the construction sector for the underemployed
labour force found in most large cities, while at the same time
promoting the development of skills in the construction sector;
(f) Develop policies and practices
to reach the informal sector and self-help housing builders by
adopting measures to increase the affordability of building materials
on the part of the urban and rural poor, through, inter alia, credit
schemes and bulk procurement of building materials for sale to
small-scale builders and communities.
7.70. All countries should:
(a) Promote the free exchange of
information on the entire range of environmental and health aspects
of construction, including the development and dissemination of
databases on the adverse environmental effects of building materials
through the collaborative efforts of the private and public sectors;
(b) Promote the development and
dissemination of databases on the adverse environmental and health
effects of building materials and introduce legislation and financial
incentives to promote recycling of energy-intensive materials in the
construction industry and conservation of waste energy in
building-materials production methods;
(c) Promote the use of economic
instruments, such as product charges, to discourage the use of
construction materials and products that create pollution during
their life cycle;
(d) Promote information exchange
and appropriate technology transfer among all countries, with
particular attention to developing countries, for resource management
in construction, particularly for non-renewable resources;
(e) Promote research in
construction industries and related activities, and establish and
strengthen institutions in this sector.
Means of implementation
A) Financing and cost evaluation
7.71. The Conference secretariat has
estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing
the activities of this programme to be about $40 billion, including
about $4 billion from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
B) Human resource development and
capacity-building
7.72. Developing countries should be
assisted by international support and funding agencies in upgrading
the technical and managerial capacities of the small entrepreneur and
the vocational skills of operatives and supervisors in the building
materials industry, using a variety of training methods. These
countries should also be assisted in developing programmes to
encourage the use of non-waste and clean technologies through
appropriate transfer of technology.
7.73. General education programmes
should be developed in all countries, as appropriate, to increase
builder awareness of available sustainable technologies.
7.74. Local authorities are called upon
to play a pioneering role in promoting the increased use of
environmentally sound building materials and construction
technologies, e.g., by pursuing an innovative procurement policy.
H. Promoting human resource
development and capacity-building for human settlements development
Basis for action
7.75. Most countries, in addition to
shortcomings in the availability of specialized expertise in the
areas of housing, settlement management, land management,
infrastructure, construction, energy, transport, and pre-disaster
planning and reconstruction, face three cross-sectoral human resource
development and capacity-building shortfalls. First is the absence of
an enabling policy environment capable of integrating the resources
and activities of the public sector, the private sector and the
community, or social sector; second is the weakness of specialized
training and research institutions; and third is the insufficient
capacity for technical training and assistance for low-income
communities, both urban and rural.
Objective
7.76. The objective is to improve human
resource development and capacity-building in all countries by
enhancing the personal and institutional capacity of all actors,
particularly indigenous people and women, involved in human
settlement development. In this regard, account should be taken of
traditional cultural practices of indigenous people and their
relationship to the environment.
Activities
7.77. Specific human resource
development and capacity-building activities have been built into
each of the programme areas of this chapter. More generally, however,
additional steps should be taken to reinforce those activities. In
order to do so, all countries, as appropriate, should take the
following action:
(a) Strengthening the development
of human resources and of capacities of public sector institutions
through technical assistance and international cooperation so as to
achieve by the year 2000 substantial improvement in the efficiency of
governmental activities;
(b) Creating an enabling policy
environment supportive of the partnership between the public, private
and community sectors;
(c) Providing enhanced training and
technical assistance to institutions providing training for
technicians, professionals and administrators, and appointed, elected
and professional members of local governments and strengthening their
capacity to address priority training needs, particularly in regard
to social, economic and environmental aspects of human settlements
development;
(d) Providing direct assistance for
human settlement development at the community level, inter alia, by:
Strengthening and promoting
programmes for social mobilization and raising awareness of the
potential of women and youth in human settlements activities;
Facilitating coordination of
the activities of women, youth, community groups and non-governmental
organizations in human settlements development;
Promoting research on women's
programmes and other groups, and evaluating progress made with a view
to identifying bottlenecks and needed assistance;
(e) Promoting the inclusion of
integrated environmental management into general local government
activities.
7.78. Both international organizations
and non-governmental organizations should support the above
activities by, inter alia, strengthening subregional training
institutions, providing updated training materials and disseminating
the results of successful human resource and capacity-building
activities, programmes and projects.
Means of implementation
A) Financing and cost evaluation
7.79. The Conference secretariat has
estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing
the activities of this programme to be about $65 million from the
international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including
any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
B) Scientific and technological
means
7.80. Both formal training and
non-formal types of human resource development and capacity-building
programmes should be combined, and use should be made of
user-oriented training methods, up-to-date training materials and
modern audio-visual communication systems.
Notes
1/ No aggregate figures are available
on internal expenditure or official development assistance on human
settlements. However, data available in the World Development Report,
1991, for 16 low-income developing countries show that the percentage
of central government expenditure on housing, amenities and social
security and welfare for 1989 averaged 5.6 per cent, with a high of
15.1 per cent in the case of Sri Lanka, which has embarked on a
vigorous housing programme. In OECD industrialized countries, during
the same year, the percentage of central government expenditure on
housing, amenities and social security and welfare ranged from a
minimum of 29.3 per cent to a maximum of 49.4 per cent, with an
average of 39 per cent (World Bank, World Development Report, 1991,
World Development Indicators, table 11 (Washington, D.C., 1991)).
2/ See the report of the
Director-General for Development and International Economic
Cooperation containing preliminary statistical data on operational
activities of the United Nations system for 1988
(A/44/324-E/1989/106/Add.4, annex).
3/ World Bank, Annual Report, 1991
(Washington, D.C., 1991).
4/ UNDP, "Reported investment
commitments related to UNDP-assisted projects, 1988", table 1,
"Sectoral distribution of investment commitment in 1988-1989".
5/ A pilot programme of this type, the
City Data Programme (CDP), is already in operation in the United
Nations Centre on Human Settlements (Habitat) aimed at the production
and dissemination to participating cities of microcomputer
application software designed to store, process and retrieve city
data for local, national and international exchange and
dissemination.
6/ This calls for integrated
land-resource management policies, which are also addressed in
chapter 10 of Agenda 21 (Integrated approach to planning and
management of land resources).
7/ The goals of the International
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, set out in the annex to
General Assembly resolution 44/236, are as follows:
To improve the capacity of each
country to mitigate the effects of natural disasters expeditiously
and effectively, paying special attention to assisting developing
countries in the assessment of disaster damage potential and in the
establishment of early warning systems and disaster-resistant
structures when and where needed;
To devise appropriate guidelines
and strategies for applying existing scientific and technical
knowledge, taking into account the cultural and economic diversity
among nations;
To foster scientific and
engineering endeavours aimed at closing critical gaps in knowledge in
order to reduce loss of life and property;
To disseminate existing and new
technical information related to measures for the assessment,
prediction and mitigation of natural disasters;
To develop measures for the
assessment, prediction, prevention and mitigation of natural
disasters through programmes of technical assistance and technology
transfer, demonstration projects, and education and training,
tailored to specific disasters and locations, and to evaluate the
effectiveness of those programmes.
